Report into the Loss of the SS Titanic: A Centennial Reappraisal

Description

Contents

Foreword

J. Kent Layton emphasizes the need for a fresh and accurate perspective on Titanic’s history. Despite decades of study and numerous publications, myths and inaccuracies continue to cloud the story. Layton calls for a fact-based reappraisal, highlighting the importance of consulting original source material. He advocates for a collaborative approach among experts to avoid biases and achieve a comprehensive, reliable historical account. This volume aims to present the Titanic’s story with unprecedented clarity and accuracy, respecting the tragedy’s human impact.

Preface

Samuel Halpern reflects on how modern knowledge could reshape our understanding of the Titanic disaster. Inspired by revisiting the 1912 British Wreck Commission report, Halpern assembled a global team of researchers with expertise in various Titanic-related areas to produce an accurate, comprehensive study. The preface highlights each contributor’s background, emphasizing their collaborative approach to correct historical inaccuracies and present a nuanced view based on factual evidence, free from myth or revisionist bias.

1. Introduction

In the introduction, Samuel Halpern outlines the purpose of re-examining the Titanic disaster. Using evidence from British and American inquiries, survivor accounts, and recent forensic discoveries, the report aims to provide a clearer understanding of events and address longstanding inaccuracies. The introduction lists detailed questions on the Titanic’s design, voyage, collision, and rescue efforts. Halpern emphasizes a fact-based approach to dispel myths and present an accurate historical record of the Titanic tragedy.

2. Two Nations, Two Inquiries by Dave Gittins

After the Titanic sank, both Britain and the United States launched separate inquiries to investigate the disaster. The American inquiry, led by Senator William Alden Smith, focused on determining responsibility and evaluating safety protocols, despite lacking British witnesses. The British Board of Trade inquiry, led by Lord Mersey, was more formal and technical, delving into Titanic’s design, lifeboats, and navigation. Both inquiries concluded that Titanic’s speed and inadequate lifeboats contributed to the tragedy, but they differed in approach and emphasis. Modern research has since provided deeper insights, challenging some of the 1912 findings and highlighting new evidence from the wreck.

3. Description of the Ship by Bruce Beveridge and Steve Hall

An in-depth account of the Titanic’s construction, specifications, and structural design, detailing elements from its watertight compartments and deck layouts to the lifeboats and lifesaving appliances. The authors also examine Titanic’s safety measures, bulkhead structure, and material choices, comparing the ship’s capabilities with contemporary standards. The section covers passenger and crew accommodations, routes to the boat deck, and safety devices, including distress signals and life-saving equipment. Titanic’s double bottom structure and cellular layout are highlighted for their role in the ship’s intended safety, as well as its limitations during the disaster.

4. Passengers and Crew: Lost and Saved by Lester J. Mitcham

Details the breakdown of passengers and crew aboard the Titanic, analyzing survival rates across different classes and departments. The chapter provides tables showing the number of men, women, and children in each class and department, highlighting significant disparities in survival. First-class passengers and crew members had higher survival rates due to their proximity to lifeboats, while many third-class passengers and engine department crew members perished. Using original documents from national archives, the chapter reconciles discrepancies in reported numbers and underscores the class-based survival inequalities evident in the tragedy.

5. Account of the Ship’s Journey Across the Atlantic by Samuel Halpern

Samuel Halpern details the planned route and events of Titanic’s maiden voyage. Titanic set off on April 10, 1912, from Southampton, stopping at Cherbourg and Queenstown before beginning its transatlantic journey. The ship followed a predetermined course but faced cold, clear conditions on April 14. Despite multiple ice warnings, Captain Smith maintained course and speed. Around 11:40 p.m., Titanic struck an iceberg, leading to its sinking in under three hours. Halpern uses navigational and meteorological data to reconstruct Titanic’s journey and address misconceptions about the decisions made onboard.

6. Description of the Damage to the Ship by Captain Charles Weeks and Samuel Halpern

An in-depth analysis of the structural damage sustained by the Titanic after its collision with an iceberg. The impact affected the starboard side, damaging several compartments and bulkheads but did not cause a continuous gash as often believed. Using advanced imaging and historical testimonies, the chapter explores how compartmental flooding contributed to the ship’s sinking. The authors also address the role of bulkhead weaknesses and explain how the progressive flooding led to the eventual breakup of the vessel as it sank.

7. An Account of the Saving of Those on Board by Bill Wormstedt and Tad Fitch

Details the events and decisions during Titanic’s evacuation, emphasizing the crew’s actions, lifeboat procedures, and challenges faced. After the iceberg collision, Captain Smith and his officers quickly assessed the situation and issued orders to uncover and load lifeboats. Prioritizing “women and children first,” officers like Lightoller and Murdoch coordinated lifeboat loading and lowered boats even when partially filled due to passenger reluctance. The chapter also examines the physical limitations of lifeboats, discrepancies in occupancy counts, and the varied survival rates across different groups on board.

8. Too Few Boats, Too Many Hindrances by Dave Gittins, Cathy Akers-Jordan, and George Behe

Analyzes the Titanic’s lifeboat shortage and the obstacles preventing effective evacuation. The authors explain how outdated Board of Trade regulations, based on the gross tonnage of 10,000-ton ships, failed to require sufficient lifeboats for Titanic’s 46,000-ton size, limiting lifeboat capacity to 1,178 people. Furthermore, structural barriers and language barriers hindered third-class passengers’ access to lifeboats, while locked gates and limited crew preparedness delayed evacuation. This chapter highlights how regulatory gaps and ineffective evacuation logistics significantly impacted the tragedy’s outcome.

9. The Rescue by the SS Carpathia by Dave Gittins

Details the remarkable actions of Captain Arthur Rostron and his crew as they responded to Titanic’s distress call. Upon receiving the message, Carpathia, led by Rostron, immediately altered course and pushed its engines to the limit to reach Titanic’s location. Navigating through ice-filled waters, Carpathia arrived at dawn, rescuing over 700 survivors from lifeboats. The chapter covers Carpathia’s preparation, rescue logistics, and Rostron’s commendable decisions, which were later recognized with a Congressional Gold Medal. This account highlights Carpathia’s vital role in Titanic’s aftermath and the resilience of its crew.

10. The Circumstances in Connection with the SS Californian by Samuel Halpern

Examines the contentious issue of whether the SS Californian could have responded to Titanic’s distress signals on the night of the sinking. Halpern recounts the route and actions of the Californian, including eyewitness testimonies, navigational data, and inquiries into the sighting of Titanic’s distress rockets. Despite seeing signals, the Californian did not respond, largely due to human error and misinterpretation. The chapter discusses various positions of the ships, analysis of sightings, and navigational errors, ultimately questioning whether the Californian could have aided Titanic in time to prevent further loss of life.

11. The Circumstances in Connection with the SS Mount Temple by Samuel Halpern

The role of the SS Mount Temple on the night of the Titanic disaster. Mount Temple was one of the first ships to respond to Titanic’s distress call, heading toward the given coordinates. However, a massive ice field blocked its approach, forcing it to stop. This chapter addresses controversies regarding the Mount Temple’s location and actions, often confused with those of the SS Californian. Halpern uses navigational data and crew testimonies to clarify Mount Temple’s position and its attempts to assist, ultimately debunking myths surrounding its response.

12. The Aftermath of the Disaster by Mark Chirnside and Dave Gittins

Explores the Titanic’s influence on maritime safety reforms, particularly on its sister ships, Olympic and Britannic. Following the disaster, Olympic underwent significant structural modifications, including raising bulkheads and adding an inner hull for improved safety. The chapter also covers the establishment of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which introduced regulations for lifeboat capacity, wireless communication, and iceberg patrols. Though the first SOLAS convention was interrupted by World War I, its standards reshaped international maritime policies, prioritizing safety and preparedness in passenger vessels.

13. Chronology of Events with References and Notes by Samuel Halpern

Provides a meticulous timeline of Titanic’s maiden voyage, based on survivor testimonies, official inquiries, and historical documents. The chronology begins with the ship’s departure from Southampton and follows through to the sinking and rescue operations, presenting precise details of actions and responses from crew and passengers. Halpern emphasizes the discrepancies in reported times and highlights navigational and operational decisions, incorporating extensive footnotes for accuracy. This comprehensive timeline aims to offer a reliable sequence of events, reconciling differences in eyewitness accounts and archival records.

14. Summary of the Findings of This Report

The team present their conclusions on the Titanic disaster, addressing long-standing questions through evidence gathered from technical analysis, survivor testimonies, and historical records. The summary covers the ship’s design, safety measures, and crew preparedness, as well as details on the iceberg collision, flooding, and subsequent sinking. It also reviews Titanic’s route, the responses from other ships, and the limitations of emergency protocols. This comprehensive reevaluation challenges myths and offers nuanced insights into the events, emphasizing the complex interplay of factors that led to the tragedy.

Appendices A-F:  Passenger and Crew Lists by Lester J.Mitcham

Appendix G: Times Gone Wrong by Samuel Halpern

Examines discrepancies in reported times related to Titanic’s collision and sinking. Different sources, including the American and British inquiries, the White Star Line, and individual testimonies, offered varied time differences between Titanic’s time and New York Time (NYT). Halpern explores how each time difference—1 hour 33 minutes, 1 hour 50 minutes, and 1 hour 39 minutes—originated from misunderstandings and calculations based on position, communication errors, and misinterpretation of longitude. This appendix highlights the ongoing challenges in pinpointing exact times for Titanic’s key events, illustrating the complexities of maritime timekeeping in 1912.

Appendix H: A Few Eyewitness Reports by Captain Charles Weeks and Samuel Halpern

Eyewitness accounts detailing Titanic’s flooding and structural conditions after the iceberg collision. This appendix provides a timeline of observations from passengers and crew, noting rising water levels in various compartments and deck areas, and the ship’s increasing list and trim. Witnesses describe water entering boiler rooms, passageways, and crew quarters, as well as lifeboat loading and lowering challenges. The detailed accounts illustrate the progression of flooding and structural compromise, providing insights into Titanic’s final moments and helping verify the sequence of critical events.

Appendix I: Lifeboat Recovery Times by George Behe

Analyzes the timeline for recovering Titanic’s lifeboats by the rescue ship Carpathia. Determining exact recovery times is challenging due to contradictory survivor testimonies, estimates, and inconsistent timekeeping. Behe categorizes primary and secondary sources, such as eyewitness accounts, ship logs, and personal letters, into a rough timeline, using 15-minute increments for most arrivals. Notably, only the first and last lifeboats have confirmed recovery times, as recorded by Carpathia’s Captain Rostron. This appendix provides a chronological framework based on available evidence, offering future researchers a reference for further analysis of lifeboat recovery events.

Appendix J: The Question of Locked Gates by Cathy Akers-Jordan and George Behe

Investigates the persistent claim that Titanic’s steerage passengers were prevented from reaching lifeboats by locked gates. They explore testimonies and historical evidence regarding gates on Titanic, including those mandated for immigration laws, which were designed to separate passenger classes. Survivor accounts reveal conflicting experiences, with some third-class passengers reporting barriers or locked gates, while others found open routes. The appendix clarifies that while barriers existed, most gates were likely not locked during the sinking, and physical and social factors contributed to the steerage passengers’ limited access to safety.

About the Authors

SAMUEL HALPERN has written over 25 articles on Titanic and is a member of the Titanic Historical Society and Titanic International Society. He lives in Chicago.

CATHY AKERS-JORDAN is a professor at University of Michigan-Flint who has presented at the Titanic Symposium at the Maine Maritime Academy. She lives in Davison, Michigan.

GEORGE BEHE is a past vice president of the Titanic Historical Society. He has been interviewed and acted as a consultant for many documentaries and Titanic books, and has written numerous articles for the Titanic Historical Society’s journal The Commutator. He has also been fortunate to have been able to count more than a dozen Titanic survivors among his personal friends. He has written On Board RSM Titanic and Voices from the Carpathia for The History Press.

BRUCE BEVERIDGE is one of the foremost visual and technical historians of the Olympic-class ships. His highly sought-after General Arrangement plan of Titanic, released in 2003, is one of the most detailed and accurate plans released to date and has subsequently been used by dive teams investigating the wreck. He has advised on Titanic’s specifications for news media, publishers, scale-model manufacturers, archivists, exhibitors and television production companies across the world. He frequently gives talks and presentations globally and also makes regular appearances in Titanic documentaries.

MARK CHIRNSIDE is a well-known maritime author. He has previously written RMS Aquitania: The Ship Beautiful, Olympic. Titanic and Britannic: The Olympic Class Ships, RMS Olympic: Titanic’s Sister, The ‘Big Four’ of the White Star Fleet, and Oceanic: White Star’s Ship of the Century for The History Press.